Organization of Memory
Organization of MemoryA considerable amount of research has been
carried out on the nature and structure of
memory, its functions and processes but
recently, psychologists such as Schank
(1975) have started to conduct empirical
studies on the organisation of memory. This
essay will examine one of the more recent
developments in the organisation of memory,
the schema theory.
According to Gross (1999) the organisation of
memory involves two main concepts. These
are the format in which information is
arranged and how this information is
arranged. The earlier theories, such as the
matrix and hierarchical network models by
Collins and Quillians (1969, 1972) concerning
the organisation of memory adopted a logical,
sequential approach to the organisation of
memory. Later on, in the late 1970’s
psychologists such as, Schank, Abelson and
Rumelhart realised that the organisation of
memory is not as logical as the earlier
models proposed. The schema theories
make an attempt at addressing the more
complex aspects of the organisation of
memory.
Semantic memory plays a fundamental role in
the earlier theories but according to Baddley
(1990) it became increasingly obvious during
the 1970’s that the SM must contain structures
considerably larger than the simple concepts
discussed in the network models by Collins
and Loftus. Bartlett (1932) used the term
‘schema’ to refer to this larger unit of semantic
memory. According to Hayes (1999) a
schema is a ‘….form of representation which
we use to guide our actions’ Bartlett (1932)
described a schema as ‘ an active
organisation of past reactions, or of past
experiences which must always be supposed
to be operating in any well-adapted
organismic response’. Bartlett also realised
that our memory is often disorganised, vague
and incomplete and that any theoretical model
must attempt to explain such inaccuracies in
our representation of information or
knowledge. Bartlett also recognised that
memory is a reconstructive process in which
information already stored affects the
remembering of other events. According to
Cohen (1993), schema theory represents the
most influential approach to the fundamental
problem identified by Bartlett. At its core is the
belief that what we remember is influenced by
what we already know and that our use of past
experience to deal with new experience is a
fundamental feature of how the mind works.
Two major modern schema theories are
those of Rumelhart (1975) and Schank (1975)
and Schank and Abelson (1977). Their
theories greatly overlap and are, in many ways
inter-related. The main concepts and ideas in
these two theories were summarised by
Norman (183/85). First, that schema’s have
variables or slots. Schemas are packets of
information, which comprise a fixed,
compulsory value plus a variable or optional
value. Rumelhart and Norman (1983)
described schemas as ‘varying considerably
in the amount of information they
contain-some are quite simple while others
are extremely complex’. Here, there is a
subtle reference to the variable slots. Second,
schemas can be related together to form
systems. That is, they are not mutually
exclusive packets of information but can be
overlapping. For example, a schema for a
picnic may be part of a larger system of
schemas including, meals, outings and
parties. Third, Schemas represent knowledge
of all levels of abstraction. Schemas can
relate to abstract ideologies, abstract
concepts or concrete objects. For example,
they may be...
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